This short paper begins by looking at the wide-ranging definitions, identified benefits, and less reported negative effects of mindfulness. It then explores how mindfulness is developed and how it is applied in the workplace, including how it has been used with entrepreneurs and the links between mindfulness and prosocial values and behaviours. The paper ends by looking at the role of innovation in adopting mindfulness-based approaches.
Definitions of Mindfulness
“Mindfulness” is a term that has been used to describe many practices, processes, and characteristics. While mindfulness has often been linked to Buddhist philosophy (Dreyfus, 2011), in the West, the secular approach to mindfulness is being used in a variety of settings that include psychology, psychiatry, medicine, education, and the workplace.
A lot of time, effort and resources have been expended in an attempt to define mindfulness and its various components, to identify the psychological processes that are involved, and then to describe mindfulness in ways that are both robust and easily understood. Bishop et.al. (2004) posited a model of mindfulness that included specific behaviours, experiential manifestations and the psychological processes involved, temporal stability and contextual factors. Shapiro et.al. (2006) argued the need to separate and compare the various active components of mindfulness as a way of determining if it is the development of mindfulness that leads to observed changes. This argument led to an opening up of the dialogue around how mindfulness works putting forward three axioms of mindfulness; intention, attention, and attitude, as interwoven aspects of a single cyclic process that occur together. In doing so, they posited the view that mindfulness is a process rather than a state. Similarly, from a behaviourist perspective, mindfulness is seen as a process of re-perceiving that involves four additional mechanisms; self-regulation, values clarification, cognitive, emotional, and behavioural flexibility, and exposure to stimuli, with each variable supporting and affecting the other (Scott,2021). Lykins and Baer (2009) linked mindfulness to character strengths which led them to ask if mindfulness was a character strength while Williams (2010) linked mindfulness to emotional signalling systems, arguing that these are switched off by mindfulness training. Carlson (2013) saw mindfulness as being linked to self-awareness and Bedford-Petersen et.al. (2018) linked mindfulness to an individual’s values. Atkins and Styles (2015) saw mindfulness as being linked to the formation of individual identity, while Desbordes (2019) attempted to link mindfulness to the impact it has on self-related processes but was hampered by insufficient data. Chincilla and Garcia cited in Ozcan et. al. (2021) linked mindfulness to social intention.
Mindfulness has also been viewed as a multi-level concept associated with both individual and organisational benefits which can be developed through personal, relational, and social practices in addition to meditation (Weick & Sutcliffe, 2006). Baer et.al. (2019) saw mindfulness as a measurable psychological capacity but studies measuring mindfulness traits primarily used the MAAS, 1 15 item scale designed to assess the core characteristics of dispositional mindfulness (Bristow, 2019). However, more recently Azik-Reebs et.al (2021) have argued that more rigorous behavioural measures of mindfulness were critical and that this involved measuring objects of mindful awareness, the time course of mindful awareness, sensitivity of mindful awareness, and attitude toward the present moment. They also argued that any intervention needed to be designed with its usefulness in mind and to achieve this involved the use of cooperative and participative approaches that recognised the value of end user expertise on their context and the relevance of learning outcomes.
Other researchers have challenged previous perceptions of mindfulness. Dreyfus (2011) challenged the view of mindfulness having a present moment focus and saw mindfulness as being more about sustained attention with an evaluative component, arguing that modern definitions of mindfulness provide an inadequate foundation for theoretical analysis. More recently, Duplessis and Just (2021) have argued that mindfulness has the potential to be transformative.
Baer & Lykins (2011) draw upon empirical studies to explore the link between mindfulness and positive psychology functioning but recognised that while the literature is growing, it has its limitations. They argued that causality was unclear and a systematic investigation was needed to identify the causal agents that included experimental and longitudinal mediational and process-orientated studies, using a wide range of measures and varied populations in order to understand the mechanisms involved.
While Jon Kabat Zinn originally defined mindfulness as paying attention, on purpose, in the present moment, non-judgementally (Kabat-Zinn,1982) more recently he has suggested that there is a need to broaden the definition of mindfulness to encompass its Buddhist roots, the classical definitions and modern interpretations of mindfulness, the increasing rigour of investigation, the historical, philosophical and linguistic contextualisation of mindfulness in different cultures, and the potential for a universal expression of mindfulness that takes account of different cultural forms while maintaining its integrity, ethical core, and liberative perspective (Kabat-Zinn, 2019). He then goes on to describe an increasing number of mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) that have moved mindfulness into the mainstream but he is also of the view that from the perspective of psychology, and mindfulness being a resource for humanity, there is a need for greater clarity around what we mean by the terms associated with mindfulness and how these relate to our natures and our common humanity, as well as our individuality. He argues that this would be 21st century psychology at its most rigorous and useful, by providing insights into our own nature and our relationships with one another and the environment at a time when it has never been more critical. In the UK, this view was shared by the Mindfulness All Party Parliamentary Group in their contribution to the debates around the usefulness of mindfulness in tackling societal problems, moving away from a focus on individual benefits, to benefits for the whole of the society, with the prevailing policy narratives at the time around wellbeing, technology, attention, care and compassion, and job automation driving further interest (Bristow, 2019). Purser (2019) talks of there being a mindfulness revolution and of neoliberalism pervading mindfulness that is leading to social amnesia and a need for mindful ethics, which will require mindfulness to be liberated from its current constraints.
Negative effects of Mindfulness
In a study, using content driven thematic analysis Van Dam et. al. (2018) identified a broad range of negative experiences along with contributory factors, and similarly Cebolla et al (2019), conducted an online survey to evaluate the occurrence of unwanted effects of mindfulness, which considered moderating factors such as type of practice, frequency, and duration. The unwanted effects identified consisted of a range of physiological, psychological, and spiritual events, but there was no consensus whether symptoms directly related to the mindfulness practice, could be seen as inherent, or that the practice facilitated the emergence of undiscovered problems. Whilst this study provided some interesting insights, it had several limitations. The sample was not representative, there were biases associated with the recruitment, the self-report questionnaires had not been validated and no attention was paid to contextual or demographic effect. Despite these limitations, the study highlights a need to take account of potential unwanted effects.
Mindfulness Development
Mindfulness can be been developed in several ways. These include spiritual tradition-based teaching through talks, workshops, and retreats as well as monastic ordination, placing mindfulness within a wider framework of human experience, and ethics that are linked to a set of beliefs. From the late 1970s, mindfulness has been taught in mainstream medical settings and has included Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) used for the treatment of recurrent depression. Developed for clinical settings these programmes generally consist of 8 x 2.5hour sessions, which has informed the development of programmes outside of clinical settings (Crane,2010). Flaxman et.al. (2013) developed an evidence-based workplace training programme based upon acceptance commitment therapy that aimed to improve the psychological health and performance of employees by combining mindfulness and values-guided behaviour.
Crane et al (2017) identified the common features of mindfulness-based programmes in terms of what they see as “fixed” and “variable”, and differentiated programmes as either “mindfulness-based” or “mindfulness-informed”. The term “mindfulness-based indicating that the approach is the practice of mindfulness and includes MBSR and MBCT. In contrast, mindfulness-informed approaches use mindfulness practices within their methodology but the core process is not mindfulness practice, these include development in the field of Positive Psychology. The active ingredients of an mindfulness-based approach that may contribute to positive effect were identified as length of each session, frequency and total number of sessions, formal mindfulness practice, informal mindfulness practices, group size diversity or dynamics, psychoeducational content, skills, capabilities and characteristics of the teachers, style of inquiry process used to elicit insights and discussion, level of home practice in addition to classes and the motivations, intentions, and belief system of the individual or organisation taking part. Online courses, mobile apps, and books are also popular, delivering similar content to face to face delivery but in different formats, however there has been limited research on their effectiveness (Bristow, 2019).
McCown et al ( 2011) produced an easily understood framework for trainers’ self-assessment that identified the need for skills around stewardship of the group, supporting unlearning, the ability to work with reactivity and aggression, the delivery of didactic material, guiding practices based upon connection rather than performance, allowing learning to emerge from learners’ direct experience, being inclusive of different philosophical, cultural and individual experiences and language and finally having an openness to learning outcomes. The evolving Mindfulness-Based Interventions: Teacher Assessment Criteria were also developed to support the learning and growth of those teaching mindfulness (Crane & Kuyken, 2014).
Later, Reynolds et.al. (2017) looked at the role of reflection and mindfulness and how they might be integrated, finding there was an important body of knowledge of how organisations can foster reflection on action but less is known about how reflection in action can be developed and suggested that the process of reflecting in action is closely linked to mindfulness and that by integrating mindfulness and reflection in action, we can better understand why some organisations learn better than others and why some interventions are more effective than others.
Mindfulness-based interventions are currently delivered in a variety of formats but little is known about the learning achieved. The literature review showed this was due to a lack of clarity around definitions and the mechanisms involved, poor reporting standards and an over-reliance on self-reporting, and limited studies looking at how learning was used and the impact this had. Among the plausible explanations for the findings is that while mindfulness has been linked to flourishing, the mechanisms remain unclear. More recently Nakamura et.al. (2021) have developed a theory of mindfulness that facilitates a greater awareness and understanding of the mechanism by which mindfulness impacts on cognition.
Mindfulness in Workplace Settings
A lot of claims have been made about the benefits of mindfulness in workplace, not all of which are supported by evidence, and recent reviews have emphasised weaknesses in the research methodology and the need for more robust research (Bristow, 2019). Prior to this, Reb and Atkins (2015) produced the first edited volume that provided an account of empirical and theoretical research of mindfulness in organisations. This placed the research into a broader context and in doing so identified a number of tensions and ongoing in the current literature, including the tension between spirituality and the typical workplace culture, the diversity of perspectives on mindfulness, how mindfulness and mindfulness-based interventions are translated into the workplace settings, and the challenges associated with maintaining richness and integrity of mindfulness-based approaches. Chaskalson and Hadley (2017) described how interventions designed for use in clinical settings were being adapted for use in workplace settings. Later, Ihl et al. (2020) conducted a systematic review on mindfulness, or meditation interventions. While their findings indicated some signs that mindfulness may have improved aspects of well-being, resilience, and leadership capability, the results were variable in both quality and strength. Although the studies explored different interventions, they provided little insight into which interventions were more effective, in what context they were best applied, or who they were most suited to. Importantly, while some studies showed an increase in participants’ mindfulness, there was no exploration of whether this improved mindfulness led to the positive outcomes identified. Alberts and Hulsheger (2017) investigated both formal and informal approaches to mindfulness in the workplace and stressed the need to link any mindfulness-based intervention to work-related outcomes. Bristow (2019) also emphasised weaknesses in the research methodology and a need for more robust research including increasing clarity around the chain of causality of any impact of a mindfulness-based intervention and the value of that impact. It has also been previously argued that the academic and training sectors need to align on the terminology used for areas of mindfulness-based impact and the chain of causality as this may help to communicate the benefits to the business sector in a more tangible and robust way (Bristow, 2019).
In attempting to develop a broader understanding of mindfulness within organisational setting, Rupprecht et.al. (2019) investigated the mindfulness-based interventions being delivered and the impact they had. They found that the evidence was limited and the quality of studies were weak. They went on to argue that putting mindfulness within the context of organisational needs to be developed in ways that offer explanation based upon the interactions between mindfulness and significant workplace factors. They also argued the current understanding of mindfulness in workplace settings needs to be expanded beyond the current focus on the individual to encompass team and organisational level variables that include process, outcomes and moderating factors. They went on to propose the development of a multi-level model of mindfulness that differs from the current depiction of mindfulness as a set of practices, broadening training programmes, and developing a competency framework specifically for those teaching mindfulness in workplace settings. Similarly, a study by Steadman and Skaar cited in Critchley (2020) introduced a conceptual framework that aimed to link mindfulness, trust and leader effectiveness. They put forward the view that mindfulness works through re-perceiving, cognitive capacity and flexibility, emotion regulation, behavioural regulation, and self-social awareness, and that the components of trust including ability, integrity, and benevolence can be integrated into a conceptual framework. Finally, Perez-Nebra (2021) argued that work and organisational psychology needs to move beyond measuring performance and well-being if it is to stay relevant. Previously, they had similarly looked beyond the practice of mindfulness to explore what made a mindfulness informed business but recognised more research was needed.
Mindfulness and Entrepreneurship
Redrup (2005) argued that the degree of mindfulness with which entrepreneurs use prior experience can both help and harm their ability to discover and exploit opportunities. However, drawing upon several literature streams including studies of habitual entrepreneurs, behavioural learning theory, developmental frameworks, experience, and use of past experience, he found that learning is to be gained from both the positive and negative aspect of mindfulness and went on the emphasise how mindfulness can be used as an asset of learning processes by recognising the power of experience-based learning. Later Doran (2017) produced a conceptual paper that specifically integrated mindfulness, entrepreneurial process and the impact that mindfulness had on choices, theorising that mindfulness also positively related to ethical decision making and proposing compassion as a factor mediating the relationships between mindfulness and ethical choices in an entrepreneur’s opportunity recognition. In the same year, Chinchilla and Garcia (2017) explored social entrepreneur intention and mindfulness through an online survey involving 1,854 participants. Results showed a positive relationship between mindfulness and entrepreneur training. More specifically, the study found that social entrepreneurs need skills that allow them to successfully cope with challenges in both social and business settings, and goes on to suggest that mindfulness is an important characteristic of social entrepreneurs’ prosocial intention, along with enterprise training and volunteer experience.
An interesting study looking specifically at mindfulness and indigenous knowledge and innovation, Nbudusi and Uslay (2014) highlighted the role of mindfulness in the development of indigenous innovation and enterprise. The researchers found that mindfulness encourages an appreciation of other forms of knowledge and practices that are distinct from more prevalent Western forms and by doing so mindfulness promotes indigenous knowledge and enterprise. They go on to argue that by recognising and valuing the knowledge and experience of indigenous communities, mindfulness facilitates entrepreneurship.
Mindfulness and Prosocial Behaviour
There have been calls for ethics training to be included in secular mindfulness-based interventions, especially when the approach used is seen as being inconsistent with the ethics of Buddhist traditions. In doing so, he draws attention to the Buddhist three-fold training that incorporates morality, concentration, and wisdom as important contextual factors which are in contrast to the current approach which divorces mindfulness from a wider ethical framework and instead adopts it as a technique for quietening the mind (Thupten 2019). Other findings suggest that whilst ethical and relational context and pre-existing dispositions are all involved, a holistic approach is needed to explore those relationships that lead to sustainable and inclusive pro-social behaviour. Sevinc and Lazar (2019) postulated that the heightened awareness post mindfulness training contributed to changes in the processing of morally relevant information and the promotion of moral action, Kreplin et.al (2018) used randomised-controlled trials to investigate five types of social behaviours, compassion, empathy, aggression, connectedness, and prejudice. While they found mindfulness led to a moderate increase in prosocial behaviours, this effect was qualified by the type of prosocial behaviour and the quality of the research methodology where biases and theoretical approaches need to be addressed. In another study by Luberto et.al (2017) systematic review and meta-analysis was used to investigate the effects of mindfulness on empathy, compassion, and prosocial behaviour. In 26 studies involving 1714 participants, the researchers found mindfulness can improve prosocial emotions and behaviour. Later, Bristow (2020) looked at the role of mindfulness in gathering and processing information, making sense, making decisions, and taking action all necessary for living together in the world. Other researchers have argued there was a need to look more deeply into the context (Condon,2018: Donald et.al.;2018: Hafenbrack & Vohs, 2020). Other studies exploring the connection between mindfulness and pro-social behaviour found that when mindfulness is driven by altruistic motivation, it can be a transformative tool for prosocial action (Perocheau,2016); certain types of practice can promote positive social outcomes and that self-transcendence, or the drive to help others, may be one key mechanism (Kang,2019). Previously, Music (2014) identified a number of research projects which showed mindfulness leads to increased social connection and empathy, for example in an experiment, people who completed an 8-week mindfulness course were four times more likely to help others than a control group.
In 2017, Kelly and Doran produced a conceptual paper that specifically integrated mindfulness, entrepreneurial process, and the impact that mindfulness had on choices, theorising that mindfulness also positively related to ethical decision making and proposing compassion as a factor mediating the relationships between mindfulness and ethical choices in opportunity recognition. In the same year Weber ( 2017) argued that mindfulness is not enough, it also requires the qualities of non-judgement, acceptance, equanimity, and being able to develop compassion. Later, Donald (2019) found that despite this widespread adoption of mindfulness, little attention has been paid to its efficacy in promoting prosocial behaviour and the ethical and relational contextual factors. While his study found that meditation was linked to an increase in pro-social behaviour and moderators were involved, more research was needed to understand the nature of those moderators and that ethical and relational context and pre-existing dispositions are all involved but a holistic approach is needed to explore relationships what lead to sustainable and inclusive pro-social behaviour.
Mindfulness and Innovation
For mindfulness practices to become effective and accessible this needs to be balanced with the need for them to retain integrity and to be of proven benefit. Innovation is both healthy and necessary, and a mindful approach to innovation involves clarifying intentions, adopting a beginner’s mind to explore the problem to be addressed, building on the knowledge and learning that already exists, respecting people’s understanding of their own needs, inviting and embracing diverse and challenging voices, testing and improving rapidly, being prepared to let go of what doesn’t work, building an evidence base in order to be confident in any claims, knowing limitations and collaborating with others with the necessary skills and finally, walking the talk, deepening and maintaining a personal mindfulness practice ( Bristow, 2019).
Blok; Blok and Lemmens (2019) argued the need for research to focus on socio-ethical relationships in which the researcher becomes responsive to stakeholder demands and focuses on the performance of ethical behaviours while recognising that the mission, interests, and core values of the researcher will impact on the responsiveness at each stage of the process. There is, therefore a need to look in more detail at the philosophies and values that inform the development and delivery of any intervention to ensure a socially and culturally sensitive view of human nature and that the psychological needs and values that motivate entrepreneurs at different stages of the entrepreneur journey are taken into account.
Conclusion
Mindfulness is often misrepresented which has led to misunderstandings about what it is, and what it is not. If mindfulness is to have relevance in workplace settings more research is needed in identifying the mechanisms involved in the development of mindfulness and the contextual factors impacting upon the development and application of mindfulness.
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